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Caudal Epidural Block in Pediatric Anesthesia

Overview and Anatomy

Caudal Epidural Block: An Updated Review of Anatomy and Techniques

Volumes of the spinal canal and caudal space in children zero to three years of age assessed by magnetic resonance imaging: implications for volume dosage of caudal blockade

The prevalence of anatomical variations that can cause inadvertent dural puncture when performing caudal block in Koreans: a study using magnetic resonance imaging

The level of termination of the dural sac by MRI and its clinical relevance in caudal epidural block in adults

Measuring the depth of the caudal epidural space to prevent dural sac puncture during caudal block in children

Test Your Knowledge: newborn spinal cord

Techniques and Guidance

Caudal anesthesia in pediatrics: an update

Real-Time Ultrasound Improves Accuracy of Caudal Block in Children

Comparative evaluation of landmark technique and ultrasound-guided caudal epidural injection in pediatric population: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Confirmation of success rate of landmark-based caudal blockade in children using ultrasound: A prospective analysis

Ultrasound-guided caudal blockade and sedation for paediatric surgery: a retrospective cohort study

Real-Time Ultrasonography for the Placement of Caudal Epidurals for Thoracic Surgery in Infants: A Description of the Technique and Case Series

Tunnelling of caudal epidural catheters in infants

Adjuncts and Additives

The use of additives to local anaesthetic solutions for caudal epidural blockade

Dexmedetomidine as an adjunct for caudal anesthesia and analgesia in children

The Use of Epinephrine in Caudal Anesthesia Increases Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output in Children

Dosing, Volume, and Drug Comparisons

Reconsidering injection volume for caudal epidural block in young pediatric patients: a dynamic flow tracking experimental study

A comparison of high volume/low concentration and low volume/high concentration ropivacaine in caudal analgesia for pediatric orchiopexy

Comparison of ropivacaine 0.1% and 0.2% with bupivacaine 0.2% for single-shot caudal anaesthesia in children

Ultrasound assessment of cranial spread during caudal blockade in children: Effect of different volumes of local anesthetic

Monitoring and Physiologic Effects

The effects of caudal local anesthesia blockade on the Bispectral Index during general anesthesia in children

Detection of intravascular injection of regional anaesthetics in children

Outcomes and Safety

Are caudal blocks for pain control safe in children? an analysis of 18,650 caudal blocks from the Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network (PRAN) database

Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network (PRAN): a multi-institutional study of the use and incidence of complications of pediatric regional anesthesia

A Systematic Review of Caudal Anesthesia and Postoperative Outcomes in Pediatric Cardiac Surgery Patients

Special Populations and Conditions

Caudal anesthesia in children with shunt devices

Tethered Spinal Cord Syndrome Discovered during Ultrasound-guided Caudal Block

Ultrasonography reveals a high prevalence of lower spinal dysraphism in children with urogenital anomalies

Ultrasound determination of the dural sac to sacrococcygeal membrane distance in premature neonates

Hypospadias and Urologic Surgery

Caudal analgesia, hypospadias, and urethrocutaneous fistula: Does association mean causality?

Caudal Blocks and Hypospadias Repair Complications-Much Ado about Nothing or the Real Deal?

Caudal anesthesia is not associated with post-operative complications following distal hypospadias repair

Search: caudal & hypospadias

Comparison of caudal and ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve blocks for control of post-orchiopexy pain in pediatric ambulatory surgery

Complications and Case Reports

Case report: neurological complications associated with epidural analgesia in children: a report of 4 cases of ambiguous etiologies

Summary

(Optional section for synthesis, conclusions, or optinon references)

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 == Overview and Anatomy ==
-* Caudal Epidural Block: An Updated Review of Anatomy and Techniques
-* Volumes of the spinal canal and caudal space in children zero to three years of age assessed by magnetic resonance imaging: implications for volume dosage of caudal blockade
-* The prevalence of anatomical variations that can cause inadvertent dural puncture when performing caudal block in Koreans: a study using magnetic resonance imaging
-* The level of termination of the dural sac by MRI and its clinical relevance in caudal epidural block in adults
-* Measuring the depth of the caudal epidural space to prevent dural sac puncture during caudal block in children
-* Test Your Knowledge: newborn spinal cord
-== Techniques and Guidance ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28337460/ Caudal Epidural Block: An Updated Review of Anatomy and Techniques]
-* Caudal anesthesia in pediatrics: an update
-* Real-Time Ultrasound Improves Accuracy of Caudal Block in Children
-* Comparative evaluation of landmark technique and ultrasound-guided caudal epidural injection in pediatric population: A systematic review and meta-analysis
-* Confirmation of success rate of landmark-based caudal blockade in children using ultrasound: A prospective analysis
-* Ultrasound-guided caudal blockade and sedation for paediatric surgery: a retrospective cohort study
-* Real-Time Ultrasonography for the Placement of Caudal Epidurals for Thoracic Surgery in Infants: A Description of the Technique and Case Series
-* Tunnelling of caudal epidural catheters in infants
-== Adjuncts and Additives ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29028948/ Volumes of the spinal canal and caudal space in children zero to three years of age assessed by magnetic resonance imaging: implications for volume dosage of caudal blockade]
-* The use of additives to local anaesthetic solutions for caudal epidural blockade
-* Dexmedetomidine as an adjunct for caudal anesthesia and analgesia in children
-* The Use of Epinephrine in Caudal Anesthesia Increases Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output in Children
-== Dosing, Volume, and Drug Comparisons ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19922508/ The prevalence of anatomical variations that can cause inadvertent dural puncture when performing caudal block in Koreans: a study using magnetic resonance imaging]
-* Reconsidering injection volume for caudal epidural block in young pediatric patients: a dynamic flow tracking experimental study
-* A comparison of high volume/low concentration and low volume/high concentration ropivacaine in caudal analgesia for pediatric orchiopexy
-* Comparison of ropivacaine 0.1% and 0.2% with bupivacaine 0.2% for single-shot caudal anaesthesia in children
-* Ultrasound assessment of cranial spread during caudal blockade in children: Effect of different volumes of local anesthetic
-== Monitoring and Physiologic Effects ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23515954/ The level of termination of the dural sac by MRI and its clinical relevance in caudal epidural block in adults]
-* The effects of caudal local anesthesia blockade on the Bispectral Index during general anesthesia in children
-* Detection of intravascular injection of regional anaesthetics in children
-== Outcomes and Safety ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28332251/ Measuring the depth of the caudal epidural space to prevent dural sac puncture during caudal block in children]
-* Are caudal blocks for pain control safe in children? an analysis of 18,650 caudal blocks from the Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network (PRAN) database
-* Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network (PRAN): a multi-institutional study of the use and incidence of complications of pediatric regional anesthesia
-* A Systematic Review of Caudal Anesthesia and Postoperative Outcomes in Pediatric Cardiac Surgery Patients
-== Special Populations and Conditions ==
+[[TYK5 |Test Your Knowledge]]: newborn spinal cord
-* Caudal anesthesia in children with shunt devices
-* Tethered Spinal Cord Syndrome Discovered during Ultrasound-guided Caudal Block
-* Ultrasonography reveals a high prevalence of lower spinal dysraphism in children with urogenital anomalies
-* Ultrasound determination of the dural sac to sacrococcygeal membrane distance in premature neonates
-== Hypospadias and Urologic Surgery ==
+== Techniques and Guidance ==
-* Caudal analgesia, hypospadias, and urethrocutaneous fistula: Does association mean causality?
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16682915/ Caudal anesthesia in pediatrics: an update]
-* Caudal Blocks and Hypospadias Repair Complications—Much Ado about Nothing or the Real Deal?
-* Caudal anesthesia is not associated with post-operative complications following distal hypospadias repair
-* Search: caudal & hypospadias
-* Comparison of caudal and ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve blocks for control of post-orchiopexy pain in pediatric ambulatory surgery
-== Complications and Case Reports ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30829666/  Real-Time Ultrasound Improves Accuracy of Caudal Block in Children]
-* Case report: neurological complications associated with epidural analgesia in children: a report of 4 cases of ambiguous etiologies
-== Summary ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34752689/  Comparative evaluation of landmark technique and ultrasound-guided caudal epidural injection in pediatric population: A systematic review and meta-analysis]
-* (Optional section for synthesis, conclusions, or key references)
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32267040/  Confirmation of success rate of landmark-based caudal blockade in children using ultrasound: A prospective analysis]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28337460/ Caudal Epidural Block: An Updated Review of Anatomy and Techniques]
+[https://associationofanaesthetists-publications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/anae.15738 Ultrasound-guided caudal blockade and sedation for paediatric surgery: a retrospective cohort study]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29479931/ Dexmedetomidine as an adjunct for caudal anesthesia and analgesia in children]
+[https://journals.lww.com/aacr/fulltext/2024/10000/real_time_ultrasonography_for_the_placement_of.7.aspx Real-Time Ultrasonography for the Placement of Caudal Epidurals for Thoracic Surgery in Infants: A Description of the Technique and Case Series]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16682915/ Caudal anesthesia in pediatrics: an update]
+[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1460-9592.2000.00442.x?saml_referrer Tunnelling of caudal epidural catheters in infants]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30264660/ A Systematic Review of Caudal Anesthesia and Postoperative Outcomes in Pediatric Cardiac Surgery Patients]
+[[File:Caudal-Kulkarni.jpeg|467x467px]]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27755489/ The Use of Epinephrine in Caudal Anesthesia Increases Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output in Children]
+== Adjuncts and Additives ==
+[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1460-9592.1996.d01-3.x The use of additives to local anaesthetic solutions for caudal epidural blockade]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16884465/ The effects of caudal local anesthesia blockade on the Bispectral Index during general anesthesia in children]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29479931/ Dexmedetomidine as an adjunct for caudal anesthesia and analgesia in children]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17040315/ Caudal anesthesia in children with shunt devices]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27755489/ The Use of Epinephrine in Caudal Anesthesia Increases Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output in Children]
-[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1460-9592.2000.00532.x Comparison of ropivacaine 0.1% and 0.2% with bupivacaine 0.2% for single-shot caudal anaesthesia in children]
-[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1460-9592.1996.d01-3.x The use of additives to local anaesthetic solutions for caudal epidural blockade]
+== Dosing, Volume, and Drug Comparisons ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37429622/  Reconsidering injection volume for caudal epidural block in young pediatric patients: a dynamic flow tracking experimental study]
-[https://associationofanaesthetists-publications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/anae.15738 Ultrasound-guided caudal blockade and sedation for paediatric surgery: a retrospective cohort study]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25393589/ Are caudal blocks for pain control safe in children? an analysis of 18,650 caudal blocks from the Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network (PRAN) database]
 [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19762734/ A comparison of high volume/low concentration and low volume/high concentration ropivacaine in caudal analgesia for pediatric orchiopexy]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9187777/  Detection of intravascular injection of regional anaesthetics in children]
+[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1460-9592.2000.00532.x Comparison of ropivacaine 0.1% and 0.2% with bupivacaine 0.2% for single-shot caudal anaesthesia in children]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23144440/ Case report: neurological complications associated with epidural analgesia in children: a report of 4 cases of ambiguous etiologies]
+[https://journals.lww.com/sjan/fulltext/2017/11040/ultrasound_assessment_of_cranial_spread_during.13.aspx Ultrasound assessment of cranial spread during caudal blockade in children: Effect of different volumes of local anesthetic]
-[[TYK5 |Test Your Knowledge]]: newborn spinal cord
-[[File:Caudal-Kulkarni.jpeg|467x467px]]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28585401/ Caudal analgesia, hypospadias, and urethrocutaneous fistula: Does association mean causality?]
+== Monitoring and Physiologic Effects ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16884465/ The effects of caudal local anesthesia blockade on the Bispectral Index during general anesthesia in children]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33617329/ Caudal Blocks and Hypospadias Repair Complications-Much Ado about Nothing or the Real Deal?]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37002025/ Caudal anesthesia is not associated with post-operative complications following distal hypospadias repair]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9187777/  Detection of intravascular injection of regional anaesthetics in children]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=caudal%20hypospadias Search: caudal & hypospadias]
+== Outcomes and Safety ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25393589/ Are caudal blocks for pain control safe in children? an analysis of 18,650 caudal blocks from the Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network (PRAN) database]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29028948/ Volumes of the spinal canal and caudal space in children zero to three years of age assessed by magnetic resonance imaging: implications for volume dosage of caudal blockade]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22696610/ Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network (PRAN): a multi-institutional study of the use and incidence of complications of pediatric regional anesthesia]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37429622/  Reconsidering injection volume for caudal epidural block in young pediatric patients: a dynamic flow tracking experimental study]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30264660/ A Systematic Review of Caudal Anesthesia and Postoperative Outcomes in Pediatric Cardiac Surgery Patients]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2884900/ Comparison of caudal and ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve blocks for control of post-orchiopexy pain in pediatric ambulatory surgery]
+== Special Populations and Conditions ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17040315/ Caudal anesthesia in children with shunt devices]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22696610/ Pediatric Regional Anesthesia Network (PRAN): a multi-institutional study of the use and incidence of complications of pediatric regional anesthesia]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38498665/ Tethered Spinal Cord Syndrome Discovered during Ultrasound-guided Caudal Block]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30829666/  Real-Time Ultrasound Improves Accuracy of Caudal Block in Children]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22338610/ Ultrasonography reveals a high prevalence of lower spinal dysraphism in children with urogenital anomalies]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34752689/  Comparative evaluation of landmark technique and ultrasound-guided caudal epidural injection in pediatric population: A systematic review and meta-analysis]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32267040/  Confirmation of success rate of landmark-based caudal blockade in children using ultrasound: A prospective analysis]
 [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35115413/ Ultrasound determination of the dural sac to sacrococcygeal membrane distance in premature neonates]
-[https://journals.lww.com/sjan/fulltext/2017/11040/ultrasound_assessment_of_cranial_spread_during.13.aspx Ultrasound assessment of cranial spread during caudal blockade in children: Effect of different volumes of local anesthetic]
+== Hypospadias and Urologic Surgery ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28585401/ Caudal analgesia, hypospadias, and urethrocutaneous fistula: Does association mean causality?]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38498665/ Tethered Spinal Cord Syndrome Discovered during Ultrasound-guided Caudal Block]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33617329/ Caudal Blocks and Hypospadias Repair Complications-Much Ado about Nothing or the Real Deal?]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22338610/ Ultrasonography reveals a high prevalence of lower spinal dysraphism in children with urogenital anomalies]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37002025/ Caudal anesthesia is not associated with post-operative complications following distal hypospadias repair]
-[https://journals.lww.com/aacr/fulltext/2024/10000/real_time_ultrasonography_for_the_placement_of.7.aspx Real-Time Ultrasonography for the Placement of Caudal Epidurals for Thoracic Surgery in Infants: A Description of the Technique and Case Series]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=caudal%20hypospadias Search: caudal & hypospadias]
-[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1460-9592.2000.00442.x?saml_referrer Tunnelling of caudal epidural catheters in infants]
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2884900/ Comparison of caudal and ilioinguinal/iliohypogastric nerve blocks for control of post-orchiopexy pain in pediatric ambulatory surgery]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19922508/ The prevalence of anatomical variations that can cause inadvertent dural puncture when performing caudal block in Koreans: a study using magnetic resonance imaging]
+== Complications and Case Reports ==
+[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23144440/ Case report: neurological complications associated with epidural analgesia in children: a report of 4 cases of ambiguous etiologies]
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23515954/ The level of termination of the dural sac by MRI and its clinical relevance in caudal epidural block in adults]
+== Summary ==
+* (Optional section for synthesis, conclusions, or optinon references)
-[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28332251/ Measuring the depth of the caudal epidural space to prevent dural sac puncture during caudal block in children]